Administrative , Financial and Military terms of Medieval India

Ancient Books and their authors

Nastika and Astika Schools of Indian System of Philosophy

Famous Inscriptions in India

Vedic dieties ,terms,geographical area ,tribes etc

Do u know -->> TB , DR-TB , MDR-TB , XDR-TB , TDR-TB

TB:

• Tuberculosis is caused by various strains of mycobacterium, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis. 
• It usually attacks the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body. 
• It is spread through the air when people who have active MTB infection cough, sneeze, or spit. 
• In most cases the disease is asymptomatic, latent infection, and about 10% latent infections eventually progresses to active disease. 
• If untreated, it kills 50% of its victims. 
• One third of the world’s population is thought to be infected with M. tuberculosis, and every second a new infection occurs. 
• About 80% of the population in many Asian and African countries test positive in tuberculin test.

DRUG RESISTANT TB

• Until 50 years ago, there were no medicines to cure TB. 
• Now, strains that are resistant to a single drug have been documented in every country surveyed. 
• Drug-resistant TB is caused by inconsistent or partial treatment, when patients do not take all their medicines regularly for the required period because they start to feel better, because doctors and health workers prescribe the wrong treatment regimens, or because the drug supply is unreliable. 
• A particularly dangerous form of drug-resistant TB is multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB), which is defined as the disease caused by TB bacilli resistant to at least isoniazid and rifampicin, the two most powerful anti-TB drugs. 
• Rates of MDR-TB are high in some countries, especially the former Soviet Union, and threaten TB control.

    

MDR-TB

• TB that is resistant at least to isoniazid and rifampicin the two most powerful first-line anti-TB drugs are called the Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). 
• It develops because the when the course of antibiotics is interrupted and the levels of drug in the body are insufficient to kill 100% of bacteria. 
• This means that even if the patient forgets to take medicine, there are chances of developing MDR-TB.
• MDR-TB is treated with second line of anti-tuberculosis drugs such as a combination of several medicines called SHREZ (Streptomycin+isonicotinyl Hydrazine+Rifampicin+Ethambutol+pyraZinamide) +MXF+cycloserine.

    

XDR-TB

• When the rate of multidrug resistance in a particular area becomes very high, the control of tuberculosis becomes very difficult. 
• This gives rise to a more serious problem of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB). 
• XDR-TB is caused by strains of the disease resistant to both first- and second-line antibiotics. 
• This confirms the urgent need to strengthen TB control. 
• Thus, Extensively-drug resistant TB (XDR-TB) is a sub-set of MDR-TB which is further resistant to at least two more drugs which are second line drugs and is thus virtually incurable.

TDR-TB

Totally drug-resistant tuberculosis (TDR-TB)

• It is TB which is believed to be resistant to all the first and second line TB drugs. 
• TDR-TB has resulted from further mutations within the bacterial genome to confer resistance, beyond those seen in XDR- and MDR-TB. 
• Development of resistance is associated with poor management of cases. Drug resistance testing occurs in only 5% of TB cases worldwide. 
• Without testing to determine drug resistance profiles, MDR- or XDR-TB patients may develop resistance to additional drugs. 
• TDR-TB is relatively poorly documented, as many countries do not test patient samples against a broad enough range of drugs to diagnose such a comprehensive array of resistance. 
• The United Nation’s Special Program for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases has set up a TDR Tuberculosis Specimen Bank to archive specimens of TDR-TB.

Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP)

The country is facing serious challenge because of extensive land degradation and water stress. Though the estimates may vary, it can be safely stated that nearly half of the country’s area is suffering from excessive runoff resulting in soil erosion and loss of precious water resources. The problem is more severe in rainfed areas of the country. As the agriculture productivity has stabilised in assured irrigated areas, the rainfed areas of the country assume more significance because of its potential for enhancement in productivity by successful implementation of watershed development programme.

What is IWMP ?

The Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) one of the Flagship programme of Ministry of Rural Development is under implementation by the Department of Land Resources since 2009-10 after integrating three area development programmes namely 

• Desert Development Programme (DDP), 
• Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP) and 
• Integrated Wastelands Development Programme (IWDP), 

for development of rainfed/ degraded land in the country.

What are the aims of IWMP ?

The main aims of IWMP are harnessing, conserving and developing degraded natural resources such as soil, vegetative cover and water; prevention of soil run-off; rain water harvesting and recharging of the ground water table; increasing the productivity of crops; introduction of multi-cropping and diverse agro-based activities; promoting sustainable livelihoods and increasing the household incomes. 

Which are the major activities undertaken ?

The major activities taken up under IWMP inter-alia include ridge area treatment, drainage line treatment, soil and moisture conservation, rain water harvesting, nursery raising, afforestation, horticulture, pasture development, livelihoods for asset less persons. The Department of Land Resources has sanctioned 6622 projects covering an area of 31.29 million hectare and has released the central assistance of Rs.8240.61 crore to the States under IWMP since its inception in 2009-10 to 2013-14 (till November 2013).

What is the project duration?

The project duration of IWMP project varies from 4-7 years.Though the IWMP projects are yet to be completed, the impacts are now visible in many parts of the country. 

What  benefits can be accrued from IWMP ?

The benefits that are expected to accrue under the IWMP include increase in availability of surface water & groundwater, changes in cropping pattern from one to two crops annually, increase in fodder availability and increase in milk yield, increase in agriculture productivity and increase in employment opportunities and household income.

What is the role of Gram Panchayat in IWMP ?

In the IWMP, Gram Panchayat has been effectively involved to perform important function at Village / Watershed level to keep transparency and peoples participations.  The main functions to be performed by GramPanchayat are :

To supervise , support and advise Watershed Committee (WC); Authenticate accounts / expenditure of WC and other institutions of Watershed Projects; Facilitate convergence of other programmes; Maintain asset register / watershed projects to retain it after the project; Provide office accommodation and other requirements to WC and  Allocate usufruct rights to deserving User Groups /Self Help Groups over the assets created. 

Classification of Offences as per CrPC and Recommendations of Malimath Committee regarding it

Under the Criminal Procedure Code, offences can be classified on the basis of the following three criterions;

• Cognizable and Non cognizable offences

• Bailable and Non bailable offences

• Offences which will invoke a summons case and Offences which will invoke a warrants case.

Cognizable and Non-Cognizable offences 

Cognizable and non-cognizable offences Cognizable offences have been defined in Criminal Procedure Code as follows; " `cognizable offence' means an offence for which, and `cognizable case' means a case in which, a police officer may, in accordance with the First Schedule or under any other law for the time being in force, arrest without warrant".

A non-cognizable offence has been defined in Criminal Procedure Code as follows, "`non-cognizable offence' means an offence for which, and `non-cognizable case' means a case in which, a police officer has no authority to arrest without warrant". 

Now which offence falls under the category of cognizable offences and which falls under the category of non-cognizable offences can be determined as per the classification given in the First Schedule of the Criminal Procedure Code. The First Schedule has classified all acts punishable under the Indian Penal Code, 1860 into Cognizable and non-cognizable offences. Although the Code in itself does not give any reasoning as to this classification, certain patterns can be traced if the First schedule is studied carefully. All offences which have a punishment of more than 3 years under the Indian Penal Code are considered to be cognizable offences and all offences which have a punishment of less than 3 years are non-cognizable offences. Subsequently, it can be deduced that non-cognizable offences are relatively less serious in nature than cognizable offences.

Consequently, in case of cognizable offences, the police officers can arrest the accused person without any warrant or authority issued by a magistrate. They can initiate investigation on their own accord and they needn't wait for the prior permission of a magistrate. In fact, they have a legal duty to initiate investigations. "No proceeding of a police officer in any such case shall at any stage be called in question on the ground that the case was one which such officer was not empowered under this section to investigate."

On the other hand, police officers necessarily need prior permission of a magistrate to initiate investigations in cases of non-cognizable offences. Non cognizable offences are considered more in the nature of private wrongs and therefore the collection of evidence and the prosecution of offender are left to the initiative and efforts of private citizens.

Bailable And Non-Bailable offences

Criminal Procedure Code defines bailable and non-bailable offences as "an offence which is shown as bailable in the First Schedule, or which is made bailable by any other law for the time being in force; and "non-bailable offence" means any other offence" In here too, the code does not give any reason as to on what criteria has such classification been based upon. It just lays down a seemingly arbitrary classification of the same. However, it can be logically deduced that all serious offences are non-bailable whereas all less serious offences are bailable.

Similarly, all offences which have a punishment of more than 3 years under the Indian Penal Code are considered to be non-bailable offences and all offences which have a punishment of less than 3 years are bailable offences. This too is subject to the exception of existence of a contrary law. If a person accused of a bailable offence is arrested or detained without warrant he has a right to be released on bail. In case he is accused of a non-bailable offence, then his bail is subject to the discretion by the authorities.

Warrant Case And Summons Case

According to the Criminal Procedure Code, a warrant-case "means a case relating to an offence punishable with death, imprisonment for life or imprisonment for a term exceeding two years ".

According to the Criminal Procedure Code, "a summons case means a case relating to an offence, not being a warrant case".

This classification helps to determine the type of trial procedure to be adopted in the case. Naturally, the trial procedure in case of a warrant case is much more elaborate than that of a summons case. This classification is also useful at the stage of issuing process to the accused person in the first instance. 

Need For Reclassification Of Offences

The current classification of offences has been a major cause for the high incidence of arbitrary and unnecessary arrest in our country. The scheme of classification is outdated and redundant.

There is a serious need for revaluation for the classification between cognizable and non-cognizable and bailable and non-bailable offences. The nature and quantum of punishment attached to these offences also needs to be revaluated. 

It is not that the idea for reclassification has never come up before, but given the present situation of our judicial system, it becomes all the more relevant that it be done now. For instance, many minor offences against property are still classified as non-bailable, whereas it is evident that classifying them as compoundable offences and relying on methods such as `plea-bargaining' may be more effective and agreeable to address the injury caused by the same.

Also, it has been noted that the major portion of the backlog cases in the courts consists of regulatory offences such as dishonour of cheques, traffic violations, etc. Now, these acts were made offences under special laws whereby the legislature had felt that in lieu of public policy, these acts were better off classified as criminal even though they are more akin to civil wrongs. However, the fact that they will create a maximum backlog was envisaged by neither party. Hence, there is a need for an informed study and revaluation of criminal laws. 

The Malimath Committee suggested that the offences be classified into 

a) The Social Welfare Code, 

b) The Correctional Code, 

c) The Criminal code 

d) The Economic and other offences code.

This approach of classifying the offences as per their nature is considered to be far more useful than a blanket categorization of offences. This re-classification is proposed to be done on the basis of the gravity of the offences, appropriate procedures for investigation and dispute-resolution as well as the proportionate nature and quantum of fines and punishments.

Its primary recommendation was to remove the distinction between cognizable and non-cognizable offences and make it obligatory on the Police to investigate all offences in respect of which a complaint is made. However, this is not a very practical option as it will lead to a further backlog of cases and will increase the burden on the police.

It advocated increasing the number of offences, for which an arrest needn't be made and increasing the number of offences where arrest can be made only with the order of the court and reducing the number of cases where arrest can be made without an order or warrant form the Magistrate.

The Malimath committee further recommended increasing the number of offences which are bailable and reducing the number of offences which are not bailable.

• A compoundable offence is one in which the trial court can compound the offence and dispose the case without trial. A non-compoundable offence is an offence in which the court cannot compound the case without trial. A compoundable offence is always a lesser degree offence punishable with a shorter jail term or fine. 

The Malimath Committee recommended increasing the number of offences that can be brought within the category of compoundable offences, to encourage settlements without trials.

The philosophy of Traditional Knowledge and its Applications

The fact that an awareness that “technologically sophisticated societies arose” in the Americas in advance of European development has only recently come to light means that indigenous lifeways and knowledge systems remain relatively unknown and unacknowledged.

Indigenous or traditional knowledge (TK) is the local knowledge that is unique to a culture or society. This knowledge is passed from generation to generation, usually by word of mouth and cultural rituals, and has been the basis for agriculture, food preparation, health care, education, conservation etc.

• Traditional knowledge is a systematic way of thinking applied to phenomena across biological, physical, cultural and spiritual systems. 
• It includes insights based on evidence acquired through direct and long-term experiencesand extensive and multi-generational observations, lessons and skills. 
• It has developed over millennia and is still developing in a living process, including knowledge acquired today and in the future, and it is passed on from generation to generation .

TK can contribute immensely to shape development and human well-being in a poor country. TK is essential to the food security and health of millions of people. TK can help in improving development strategies like poverty alleviation by making it cost-effective, sustainable and locally manageble and meaningful.

Application of Traditional Knowledge 

Desi Examples 

• India’s own National rural livelihood Mission which succeeded the SGSY is an example were local resources with minimum skill development has helped the women of rural areas.

• Another example is the below sea level ecosystem of Kuttinad in Kerala. Here farmers have adopted to grow rice in fields which are situated below sea level. Farmers have used their traditional knowledge to drain saline water after bunding their fields by the use of Bio-Bunds. This is system is called the Punja Rice System where salt tolerant rice varieties are being grown further these are surrounded with estuaries,  ponds and canal with diverse fish wealth thus adding to the farmers income.

• Besides agriculture women led Cooperative have also used traditional knowledge to bring development for example Shri Mahila Griha Udyog Lijjat Papad where women have used their traditional ingredients with least mechanization to build a world renowned company.

Videshi Example

• Ethiopia is one of the poorest countries of very low per capita income, distress living standards and precarious food security issues. But a traditionally grown grain called teff has been changing the face of Ethiopia., after the discovery of its nutritional values. Teff is rich in calcium, iron, protein and naturally gluten free. Due to its nutritional values, teff is in demand in the European and American markets. Ideally, it should empower the farmers in Ethiopia. But, there are certain steps government has to take such as irrigation facility utilizing rivers and streams , subsidized power and pesticides; and credible procurement channels with appropriate MSP etc.

 

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What is TKDL ?

India is recognized as a world leader in the fight against misappropriation of TK. India's Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) has set an example for other countries to follow.To combat misappropriation of its TK, and in particular the rich heritage of traditional healthcare systems, the Indian government set up TKDL. 

TKDL is a digitized record of previously published traditional medicinal knowledge, which has been made available to patent offices through non-disclosure access agreements in an effort to prevent the granting of erroneous patents. As such, it provides "defensive" protection (avoidance of IP rights granted to third parties) for TK that is already publicly available. 

While India has put in place an efficient system for combating misappropriation of TK in place, and a number of countries have adopted legislation to protect TK, there is an absence of a framework for the protection of TK at an international level.

Why should Chinese presence in Nepal concern India ?

Understanding the background of Nepal

• Nepal is a buffer country between India and China. India has historically thought Nepal to be a pro-India neighbor. 
• Nepal shares land border with five Indian states. India and Nepal are not only linked due to the proximity of land, but it is the cultural affinity that binds the two nations. 
• The common linguistic and ethnic identities, Hindu religious practices, similar festivals, affinity of food, resemblance of dresses, and the overall way of thinking, all make inseparable ties between India and Nepal. 
• Added to this range of similarities and affinities, is the presence of many prominent Nepali political leaders that have their ancestors or relatives in India.

A little historical background between China - Nepal 

Flash back of history will take historians to dwell into the border conflicts that resulted in Nepal-Tibet-China war (1789-1792) over territorial dispute. Further advancement in time will give even grimmer picture of Nepal-Tibetan war of 1855 that was concluded in 1856 with the Treaty of Thapathali with the special status of China as a mediator. Thereafter, by the early 19th century, Nepal broke all relations with China. Can such hostile relations shake the foundation of two thousand year old ties between India and Nepal? Not really, unless we see the developments of Nepal-China relations in the present times and reassess the grounds on which the current relations are established.

Nepal and China resumed diplomatic relations in the mid 1950s. The basis of signing the Treaty of Peace and Friendship in 1960 was Nepal’s recognition of Tibet as a part of China and a resolution to the long-standing border problem. Thereafter, China has constantly spread its sphere of influence on the Himalayan Kingdom by expanding greater economic linkages and extending substantial military assistance to Nepal. 

In the 1970s, when King Birendra of Nepal proposed Nepal as a “zone of peace” between India and China, India did not show keen interest, while China was quite supportive. These and many such issues created a rift in Nepal-India ties; while at the same time China has been pro-active to support and aid Nepal.

Current Scenario ?

Although India was the largest investor in Nepal in the year 2011-12 that is not the case now. During the past six months, China has become the largest FDI invester in the country. China alleges that it has taken this move to tackle the increasing influence of the US in the Himalayan kingdom.

However, the reality seems to be quite different. After the signing of the Nepal-China Friendship Treaty, China has significantly increased its presence in the country. It has opened Chinese language learning centres, China-Nepal friendship associations have been started and infrastructure such as mobile towers have been set up. These activities lead to an increased inter-mingling between the Chinese and the Nepalese civilians.

Why should Chinese presence in Nepal concern India ?

1 )  Securing China’s interest in Tibet-after China occupied there were a large number of Tibetans taking refuge in Nepal. By aligning Nepal with it, Chinese have succeeded in a change in Nepalese policy towards Tibetans fleeing from Tibet and convinced Nepal to take strong action against anti-Chinese activities in Nepal.

2) Possibilities are that China might be undertaking such massive investments in the Nepalese side bordering India to monitor the movements of the Indo-Tibetan refugees, intelligence collection as the border is open or aiding the Maoists in their war against the Indian establishment.

3)  Ending Nepal’s overdependence on India by providing economic ,military ,technological and education cooperation to Nepal would weaken India’s hold on Nepal. This would erode India’s long term influence and balance India’s growing power in south Asia.

4)  China has also pushed forward its strategic interests through infrastructural projects and FDI in Nepal. An enhanced Chinese presence in Nepal will mean increased vulnerability of our northern states from Himachal to West Bengal.

5) The point to be considered here is that all these activities are being done very close to the Indian border with Nepal, precisely near the states of UP and Bihar. The internal security (Maoism) and border security will be at risk. Illegal drugs and arms smuggling might be eased via China’s presence.

Moral of the Story :-

This influence till now is at infant stage but once there is victory of Communist party of Nepal [Maoists] in the future elections this influence will mature. This rise of Nepal will be harsh for India, for example our long term investments in hydro power may be cancelled and given to China as has been seen in Maldives.

All these factors and the recent acts of Chinese territorial aggression in J&K and Arunachal Pradesh should definitely be a cause of concern for India. It should effectively start taking steps to curb these activities before its too late.