Monday, February 28, 2011

Highlights of Budget 2011-12

http://im.in.com/connect/images/profile/feb2011/Budget_2011_300.jpg

  • Critical institutional reforms set pace for double-digit growth
  • Scaled up flow of resources infuses dynamism in rural economy
  • GDP estimated to have grown at 8.6% in 2010-11
  • Exports grown by 9.6%, imports by 17.6% in April-January 2010-11 over corresponding period last year
  • Indian economy expected to grow at 9%  in 2011-12.
  • Five-fold strategy to deal with black money.   Group of Ministers to suggest ways for tackling corruption
  • Public Debt Management Agency of India Bill to come up next financial year
  • Direct Tax Code (DTC) to be effective from April 01, 2012
  • Phased move towards direct transfer cash subsidy to BPL people for better delivery of kerosene, LPG and fertilizer mooted
  • Rs. 40,000 crore to be raised through disinvestment in 2011-12
  • FDI policy to be liberalized further
  • SEBI registered mutual funds permitted to accept subscription from foreign investors who meet KYC requirement
  • FII limit for investment in corporate bonds in infrastructure sector raised
  • Additional banking license to private sector players proposed
  • Rs. 6000 crore to be provided in 2011-12 for maintaining minimum Tier I Capital to Risk Weighted Asset Ratio (CRAR) of 8% in public sector banks
  • Rs. 500 crore to be provided to regional rural banks to maintain 9% CRAR
  • India Microfinance Equity Fund of Rs. 100 crore to be created by SIDBI
  • Rs. 500 crore Women SHG Development Fund to be created
  • Micro Small and Medium Enterprises  MSME gets boost as Rs. 5000 crore provided to SIDBI  and Rs. 3000 crore to NABARD
  • Existing housing loan limit enhanced to Rs. 25 lakh for dwelling units
  • Provision under Rural housing Fund enhanced to Rs. 3000 crore
  • Allocation under Rashtirya Krishi Vikas yojna (RKVY) increased to Rs. 7860 crore
  • Allocation of Rs. 300 crore to promote 60000 pulses villages in rainfed areas
  • Rs. 300 crore vegetable initiative to achieve competitive prices
  • Rs. 300 crore to promote higher production of nutri-cereals
  • Rs. 300 crore to promote animal based protein
  • Rs. 300 crore Accelerated Fodder Development Programme to benefit farmers in 25000 villages
  • Credit flow to farmers raised from Rs. 3,75,000 crore to Rs. 4,75,000 crore
  • Rs. 10,000 crore for NABARD’s Short Term Rural Credit Fund for 2011-12
  • 15 more mega food parks during 2011-12
  • National food security bill to be introduced this year
  • Capital investment in storage capacity to be eligible for viability gap funding
  • 23.3% increase in allocation for infrastructure
  • Tax-free bonds of Rs. 30,000 crore proposed by government undertakings
  • Environmental concerns relating to infrastructure projects to  be considered  by Group of Ministers
  • National Mission for Hybrid and Electric Vehicles to be launched
  • 7 Mega clusters for leather products to be set up
  • Allocation for social sector increased by 17% amounting to 36.4% of total plan allocation
  • Bharat Nirman allocation increased by Rs. 10,000 crore
  • Rural broadband connectivity to all 2.5 lakh panchayats in three years.
  • Bill to amend Indian Stamp Act to introduce.   Rs. 300 crore scheme for modernization stamp and registration administration
  • Significant increase in remuneration of Angawadi workers  and helpers
  • Allocation for education increased by24%.  Rs. 21,000 crore allocated for Sarv Shikshya Abhiyan registering an increase of 40%
  • 1500 institute of higher learning to be  connected by March 2012 with Knowledge Knowledge Network.
  • National Innovation Council set up.   Additional Rs. 500 crore for National Skill Development Fund
  • Plan allocation for health stepped up by20%
  • Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme liberalized further
  • Rs. 200 crore for Green India Mission
  • Rs. 200 crore for cleaning of rivers
  • Rs. 8000 crore provided for development needs of J&K
  • 10 lakhs Aadhaar(UID)  numbers to be generated everyday from 1st October
  • Fiscal deficit kept at 4.6% of GDP for 2011-12
  • Income Tax exemption limit for general category in individual tax payers enhanced from Rs. 1,60,000 to Rs. 1,80,000
  • Qualifying age for senior citizens lowered to 60; senior citizen above 80 year to get Rs. 5,00,000 IT exemption
  • Surcharge on corporate lowered to 5%

Basic Structure of the Indian Budget


The government is accountable to the Parliament in its financial management. With the constitutional supremacy of the bicameral Parliament, especially of the, every single financial act is processed and passed by the representatives of the people. However, proposals for the formulation of budget levying taxes, determining government accounts and expenditures, are prepared by the Government's Ministries and consolidated in the Ministry of Finance.

The Union Budget presented to the Parliament consists of the General Budget and the Railway Budget, the Demands for Grant, the Vote on Account, the Supplementary Demands for Grant, the Appropriation Bill and the Finance Bill.

http://www.forum4finance.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/interim-budget-3132.jpgThe Annual Financial Statement is the main Budget document. It details the receipts and payments under which Government accounts are kept, namely - Consolidated Fund, Contingency Fund, and Public Account.



All revenues received by the Government, loans raised, and receipts from recoveries, form the Consolidated Fund. All Government expenditures are acquired from the Consolidated Fund, and no amount can be withdrawn from the Fund without authorisation from the Parliament.

The Contingency Fund on the other hand is placed at the disposal of the President of India , for occasions that may arise when the Government may have to incur imperative and unexpected expenditure. Parliamentary approval for such expenditure and its reimbursement from the Consolidated Fund is subsequently obtained, and the amount spent is recouped to the Contingency Fund.

Besides the normal Government expenditures that relate to the Consolidated Fund, certain other transactions enter the Government accounts in respect of which, the Government acts more like a banker, overlooking transactions relating to provident funds, small savings collections, other deposits, etc. The money thus received is deposited in the Public Account, and the related distribution is also made there from. Thus, funds in the Public Account do not belong to the Government, and have to be paid back to the persons and authorities depositing them.

Immediately after the Annual Statement, the Finance Bill is introduced in the Lok Sabha by the Finance Minister. The Finance Bill is presented in fulfillment of the requirement under Article 110 (1) (a) of the Constitution, detailing the imposition, abolition, remission, alteration or regulation of taxes proposed in the Budget.

After passing of the Appropriation Bill, the Finance Bill is considered and passed by the Parliament as a Money Bill.

Minority Affairs in India

Subjects Allocated to the Ministry of Minority Affairs in India 

SUBJECTS ALLOCATED

  1. Overall policy, planning, coordination, evaluation and review of the regulatory and developmental programmes of the minority communities.
  2. All matters relating to the minority communities except matters relating to law and order.
  3. Policy initiatives for protection of minorities and their security in consultation with other Central Government Ministries and State Governments.
  4. Matters relating to linguistic minorities and of the office of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities.
  5. Matters relating to the National Commission for Minorities Act.
  6. Work relating to the evacuee Wakf properties under the Administration of Evacuee Property Act, 1950 (31 of 1950) (since repealed).
  7. Representation of the Anglo-Indian Community.
  8. Protection and preservation of non-Muslim shrines in Pakistan and Muslim shrines in India in terms of the Pant-Mirza Agreement of 1955, in consultation with the Ministry of External Affairs.
  9. Questions relating to the minority communities in neighboring Countries, in consultation with the Ministry of External Affairs.
  10. Charities and Charitable Institutions, Charitable and religious Endowments pertaining to subjects dealt with in the Department.
  11. Matters pertaining to the socio-economic, cultural and educational status of minorities; minority organisations, including the Maulana Azad Education Foundation.
  12. The Wakf Act, 1995 (43 of 1995) and Central Wakf Council.
  13. The Durgah Khawaja Saheb Act, 1955 (36 of 1955).
  14. Foundation of programmes and projects for the Welfare of minorities, including the National Minorities Development and Finance Corporation.
  15. Employment opportunities for minorities in the Central and State public sector undertakings as also in the private sector.
  16. Formulation of measures relating to the protection of minorities and their security in consultation with other concerned Central Ministries and State Governments.
  17. National Commission for Socially and Economically Backward Sections among Religious and Linguistic Minorities.
  18. All matters relating to the Justice Sachar Committee.
  19. Prime Minister's new 15-Point Programme for Minorities.
  20. Any other issue pertaining to the minority communities. 
http://minorityaffairs.gov.in/newsite/map/all%20india.gif
Regions of Minority Areas in India

Minority Education

The National Policy on Education 1986, updated in 1992 envisages paying greater attention to the education of the educationally backward minorities in the interest of equity and social justice. In pursuance of the revised Programme of Action (POA) 1992, two new Centrally-sponsored schemes were launched during 1993-94. These are,
  1. Scheme of Area Intensive Programme for Educationally Backward Minorities; and
  2. Scheme of Financial Assistance for Modernisation of Madarsa Education
Over a time, it has been felt that all these schemes need to be implemented in an integrated way so as to have wider coverage, greater thrust and visibility of minority education programme. In the Tenth Plan the aforesaid two schemes have been merged to form the Area Intensive and Madarsa Modernisation Programme.
 
The National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions 2004 has been set up by an Act of Parliament under which minority education institutions can seek affiliation to Scheduled Universities. University of Delhi, North Eastern Hill University; Pondicherry University; Assam University; Nagaland University and Mizoram University are at present in the Schedule.

‘Toy Story 3′ wins best animated feature film Oscar


http://www.bscreview.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/toy-story-3-742x1023.jpg“Toy Story 3″, the highest grosser of 2010, won the Oscar in the best animated feature film category at the 83rd Annual Academy Awards here.The movie, the third in the “Toy Story” series, made $1.1 billion at the box office - even more than films like Tim Burton’s “Alice in Wonderland”, Christopher Nolan’s “Inception”, “Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Part One” and “Shrek Forever After”.


Directed by Lee Unkrich, the movie was nominated in four categories - best animated feature, best adapted screenplay, best original song, and best sound editing for this year’s Oscars.

Aaron Sorkin won his first ever Oscar for adapted screenplay for “The Social Network”, while David Seidler walked away with the golden statuette for best writing, screenplay written directly for the screen for “The King’s Speech” Sunday at Hollywood’s Kodak Theatre.

“The King’s Speech” is about Britain’s King George VI who overcomes his stammering with the help of his speech therapist Lionel Logue.

Let some fresh air in (An Editorial regarding the Jamia Milia Islamia University being granted a minority status)

Delhi’s Jamia Millia Islamia university being granted a ‘minority status’ has been celebrated by many, including newspapers, as happy news and one which gives Muslims ‘due justice’. Some of Jamia’s teachers and staff even distributed sweets to mark the announcement, which will allow the university to reserve 50% seats for Muslims. 

As someone who’s lived all his life near the university and studied there, I don’t support this minority tag, despite the fact that the lobby supporting it is far stronger than I could imagine. If the aim of the minority status is to uplift the community from its backwardness, I think it’s only going to push the Muslims into a deeper ghetto. Inclusive growth is possible only with an eclectic diversity of students and staff. Jamia already has enough ‘Muslim’ character, and it does not need any legal status to ensure it. 

Those seeking the minority status argue that leaders like Mohammad Ali Jauhar and Hakim Ajmal Khan established Jamia in 1920, as “they wanted Muslims to keep their education in their own hands, free from governmental interference.” But why do we forget that 1920 was the British period and Jamia was established as a reaction to British interference in Aligarh’s Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College (MAO) started by Sir Sayyad Ahmed Khan

Why should we apply the same to the present democratic government, which gives aid to the university? Leaders like Jauhar, Ajmal Khan and others, who we invoke today, were not against non-Muslims taking part in Jamia’s development. Their secular ideals and actions were far greater than what we can aspire to. At one time in Jamia’s history, the lack of funds forced the staff to get one piece of bread a day as salary! Can any staff member or student think of emulating such ideals today? Times have changed and so have the Muslim community and Jamia. If we invoke the name of Ajmal Khan and Jauhar today, we’re only ‘using’ them for selfish gains.

The example of St Stephen’s College in Delhi is often used to justify Jamia’s minority character, as the former already has the status of a Christian institution. I think Jamia’s case can’t be compared with that of St Stephen’s for several reasons. Both institutions have very different histories and objectives. Jamia had a direct involvement with India’s freedom struggle, whereas St Stephen’s was established — according to its prospectus — as a “religious foundation drawing inspiration from the life and teachings of Jesus Christ” by a Christian mission from Westcott House, Cambridge.

Second, the quality of education in both institutions is very different — today, St Stephen’s is considered one of the top Delhi colleges whereas, sadly, Jamia (with the exception of some departments) does not feature high in students’ preference lists. But St Stephen’s high standards have nothing to do with its minority status. It is a part of a long tradition of quality education that convent institutions have diligently held up. Its minority status, while setting precedence for others, was not implemented to uplift the economic condition of Christians but preserve their culture and values.

If the aim of Jamia is to preserve its ‘Muslimness’, then there has never been any compromise on that. According to the present vice-chancellor, Jamia already has 51% Muslim students, and applying the minority status would have no particular effect. For a religious character, Jamia campus and its surroundings have several mosques, Jamia’s staff can take off from work for prayer, can work for lesser hours during Ramazan, school students are taught Urdu and Islamic theology and girl students can wear a veil, besides many other advantages they never get in any ‘mainstream’ institution. Jamia recognises degrees from Islamic madrasas as qualification for admissions into its courses like BA and MA, allowing thousands of madrasa students to get secular education and professional training. Jamia has departments of Urdu, Arabic, Persian and Islamic Studies. The university’s name itself has ‘Islamia’ in it. All this to ensure that ‘Islamic’ culture is upheld even without the minority character.

I think Muslims fear that while being victimised elsewhere in the country with communal biases and violence, their institutions will also get filled with non-Muslims, which would usurp the already shrunk spaces. But won’t accepting mostly Muslim teachers and students in Jamia prevent the entry of bright students and teachers from other communities, whose presence could create a progressive and competitive atmosphere? Interacting with a wide diversity of people is good not only for students’ careers but also to reduce communal prejudices and perceptions of victimisation.

The minority tag has outlived its use and needs to be discarded.

Yousuf Saeed is a Delhi-based independent filmmaker and researcher. The views expressed by the author are personal

Source-- Hindustan Times

Sunday, February 27, 2011

The Chakmas (Geography)

Chakma is the name of the largest tribe found in the hilly area of eastern Bangladesh known as the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Their name was first used by British census-takers to describe certain hill people.
When the British were driven from India in 1947, the land was divided into two countries, Pakistan and India. The people who lived in the Chittagong Hill Tracts region expected to become part of India. Instead, the region was given to Pakistan. This caused resentment because the people, mostly Chakma, are primarily Buddhist. They saw themselves more culturally similar to the Hindu peoples of India than the Muslims of Pakistan.
http://www.stkate.edu/scan/10-feb/_images/veils/chakma_lg.jpg

Pakistan's two regions were known as East Pakistan (where the Chakma lived) and West Pakistan. In 1971, East Pakistan fought successfully to win independence from West Pakistan. East Pakistan then became the nation of Bangladesh. The Chakma felt just as alienated from the Bangladesh government as they had from Pakistan. In 1973, the Shanti Bahini (Peace Force) began to stage violent attacks against the government to try to win independence for the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Guerrillas attacked government forces and the Bangladeshi Army responded with attacks on civilian tribal peoples. As of the late 1990s, this conflict continued.

'Khyangtha' and 'Thangtha' are the two groups with in Chakmas. They are classified on basis of the place where they live. Khyangthas live on the banks of river while Thangthas, also called Jhumias, live on hill tops. 

Saturday, February 26, 2011

Thursday, February 24, 2011

Goods and Services Tax (Fully Explained)


What is GST? How does it work ?


GST is a tax on goods and services with comprehensive and continuous chain of set-off benefits from the producer's point and service provider's point upto the retailer's level. It is essentially a tax only on value addition at each stage, and a supplier at each stage is permitted to set-off, through a tax credit mechanism, the GST paid on the purchase of goods and services as available for set-off on the GST to be paid on the supply of goods and services. The final consumer will thus bear only the GST charged by the last dealer in the supply chain, with set-off benefits at all the previous stages.
The illustration shown below indicates, in terms of a hypothetical example with a manufacturer, one wholeseller and one retailer, how GST will work. Let us suppose that GST rate is 10%, with the manufacturer making value addition of Rs.30 on his purchases worth Rs.100 of input of goods and services used in the manufacturing process. The manufacturer will then pay net GST of Rs. 3 after setting-off Rs. 10 as GST paid on his inputs (i.e. Input Tax Credit) from gross GST of Rs. 13. The manufacturer sells the goods to the wholeseller. When the wholeseller sells the same goods after making value addition of (say), Rs. 20, he pays net GST of only Rs. 2, after setting-off of Input Tax Credit of Rs. 13 from the gross GST of Rs. 15 to the manufacturer. Similarly, when a retailer sells the same goods after a value addition of (say) Rs. 10, he pays net GST of only Re.1, after setting-off Rs.15 from his gross GST of Rs. 16 paid to wholeseller. Thus, the manufacturer, wholeseller and retailer have to pay only Rs. 6 (= Rs. 3+Rs. 2+Re. 1) as GST on the value addition along the entire value chain from the producer to the retailer, after setting-off GST paid at the earlier stages. The overall burden of GST on the goods is thus much less. This is shown in the table below. The same illustration will hold in the case of final service provider as well.
Table
Stage of supply chain
Purchase value of Input
Value addition
Value at which supply of goods and services made to next stage
Rate of GST
GST on output
Input Tax credit
Net GST= GST on output - Input tax credit
Manufacturer
100
30
130
10%
13
10
13-10 = 3
Whole seller
130
20
150
10%
15
13
15-13 = 2
Retailer
150
10
160
10%
16
15
16-15 = 1




 Advantages of introduction of GST in India would be:


(1)speeds up economic union of India;

(2)better compliance and revenue buoyancy;

(3)replacing the cascading effect [tax on tax] created by existing indirect taxes;

(4)tax incidence for consumers may fall;

(5)lower transaction cost for final consumers;

(6)by merging all levies on goods and services into one, GST acquires a very simple and transparent character;

(7)uniformity in tax regime with only one or two tax rates across the supply chain as against multiple tax structure as of present;

(8)efficiency in tax administration;

(9)may widen tax base;

(10)increased tax collections due to wide coverage of goods and services; and

(11)improvement in cost competitiveness of goods and services in the international market.



What is the justification of GST ?

There was a burden of "tax on tax" in the pre-existing Central excise duty of the Government of India and sales tax system of the State Governments. The introduction of Central VAT (CENVAT) has removed the cascading burden of "tax on tax" to a good extent by providing a mechanism of "set off" for tax paid on inputs and services upto the stage of production, and has been an improvement over the pre-existing Central excise duty. Similarly, the introduction of VAT in the States has removed the cascading effect by giving set-off for tax paid on inputs as well as tax paid on previous purchases and has again been an improvement over the previous sales tax regime.
     But both the CENVAT and the State VAT have certain incompleteness. The incompleteness in CENVAT is that it has yet not been extended to include chain of value addition in the distributive trade below the stage of production. It has also not included several Central taxes, such as Additional Excise Duties, Additional Customs Duty, Surcharges etc. in the overall framework of CENVAT, and thus kept the benefits of comprehensive input tax and service tax set-off out of the reach of manufacturers/ dealers. The introduction of GST will not only include comprehensively more indirect Central taxes and integrate goods and services taxes for set-off relief, but also capture certain value addition in the distributive trade.
     Similarly, in the present State-level VAT scheme, CENVAT load on the goods has not yet been removed and the cascading effect of that part of tax burden has remained unrelieved. Moreover, there are several taxes in the States, such as, Luxury Tax, Entertainment Tax, etc. which have still not been subsumed in the VAT. Further, there has also not been any integration of VAT on goods with tax on services at the State level with removal of cascading effect of service tax. In addition, although the burden of Central Sales Tax (CST) on inter-State movement of goods has been lessened with reduction of CST rate from 4% to 2%, this burden has also not been fully phased out. With the introduction of GST at the State level, the additional burden of CENVAT and services tax would be comprehensively removed, and a continuous chain of set-off from the original producer's point and service provider's point upto the retailer's level would be established which would eliminate the burden of all cascading effects, including the burden of CENVAT and service tax. This is the essence of GST. Also, major Central and State taxes will get subsumed into GST which will reduce the multiplicity of taxes, and thus bring down the compliance cost. With GST, the burden of CST will also be phased out.
     Thus GST is not simply VAT plus service tax, but a major improvement over the previous system of VAT and disjointed services tax - a justified step forward.


Will GST be levied in addition to the existing taxes?

No, the introduction of GST will replace the various taxes presently being levied by Central & State Government(s). The CGST will subsume following taxes levied by Central government: -

• Central excise duty (Cenvat),
• Service tax,
• Additional duties of customs;
• Central sales tax

And SGST will subsume following taxes levied by State Government: -

• Value-added tax (VAT),
• Entertainment tax,
• Luxury tax,
• Octroi,
• Lottery taxes,
• Electricity duty,
• State surcharges related to supply of goods and services &
• Purchase tax.

Will prices go up after the implementation of GST?

In fact, the prices of commodities are expected to come down in the long run as dealers will be allowed to avail the CENVAT credit of Excise duty paid by Manufacturers and more over he will be allowed to avail the CENVAT credit of tax paid on services also. This passing of the benefits of reduced tax incidence to consumers by slashing the prices of goods will definitely reduce the prices.

What are the implications of GST on imports and exports?

Imports would be subject to GST. Exports, however, will be zero-rated, meaning exporters of goods and services need not pay GST on their exports. GST paid by them on the procurement of goods and services will be refunded as similar to the present scenario.

History of GST around the Globe: -

France was the first country which introduced a comprehensive goods and service tax Regime in 1954. The Goods and Service Tax (GST) is proposed to be a comprehensive indirect tax levy on manufacture, sale and consumption of goods as well as services at a national level. The GST rate in various countries ranges from 5 per cent in Taiwan to 25 per cent in Denmark.

In the late 1980s, the federal government of Canada replaced its MST (Manufacturer’s Sale Tax) with a new value-added sales tax called the Goods and Services Tax (GST). The basic motive behind this reform was to introduce a new nationally harmonized sales tax which would replace individual provincial sales taxes (PST), and both the levels of government would share the revenues generated there from.

Subsequent negotiations to harmonize the provincial and national sales taxes proved unsuccessful for the Canadian Government. Various provinces challenged the introduction of national sales tax on the ground that the federal government was exceeding its constitutional powers by operating in a taxation field historically reserved for the provinces. But as a result of constructive efforts by the Canadian Government National Sales Tax was implemented in 1989-90.

In Australia It was introduced by the Howard Government on 1 July 2000, replacing the previous Federal wholesale sales tax system and designed to phase out a number of various State and Territory Government taxes, duties and levies such as banking taxes and stamp duty. This proved a milestone in the taxonomy of Australia.

Today, it has spread to about 150 countries.


Before parting and to bring an end to this article we summarize that GST is a harmonized consumption tax system, whose introduction will bring an end to a varied number of Indirect taxes presently being levied by Central Government and State Government. The proposed date of Introduction of GST has been announced by the Government to be 1st April, 2010. Till now Government has not yet issued any Draft of GST model or various provisions to be applied, all we can do is to wait for the Draft to release. Till then we can only predict the outlook of the GST model in India and nothing can be said with utmost certainty.
Further we would bring in light that the Finance Ministers categorical statement in Parliament regarding GST implementation on April 1, 2010 clearly indicates the Governments clear and incessant intention towards bringing this tax regime by its due date. Accordingly, based on indications, as also on the basis of our subsequent interactions with senior Government Officials, we believe that the April 1, 2010 timeline for introduction of the dual GST will be duly met and we must welcome this new levy as this is the future of forthcoming India.


The Buddhist Councils

First Buddhist Council
 http://www.bodhgayatourism.com/photo/rajgir3.jpg

The First Council, as it is known to Buddhist history, took place at Rajgir, the capital of the Magadha kingdom. The Buddha's most important disciples were asked to recite his teachings from memory.

http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSxeAAHCULPTE8L9SpknA16G9f_RteEOFrI_iBp0pTP1UY2pth9

The first to recite was Ananda, the Buddha's cousin, attendant and constant companion for more than 30 years. Demonstrating impressive powers of memorization, he recited not only everything he had heard, but the place in which each discourse was given. Other monks were then asked to confirm Ananda's recollection.

http://www.cultural-china.com/chinaWH/images/exbig_images/979b135377ef4bf0ba30748b44a59eef.jpg

It was also at this council that the Buddha's teachings were divided into three categories or "baskets" (pitaka): discourses, discipline and higher knowledge. The Tripitaka that was formed at this meeting is the same canon used by Buddhists today.
  • Held soon after the death of the Buddha
  • around 400 BCE
  • Presided by monk Mahakasyapa
  • Held by Magadha king Ajatasatru in Rajagriha
  • Objective was to preserve the Buddha’s sayings (suttas) and monastic rules (Vinaya)
  • According to some sources, the Abhidhamma Pitaka, or its matika, was also included.
  • Also the Sangha made the unanimous decision to keep all the rules of the Vinaya, even the lesser and minor rules.
  • Tradition holds that the Council was held in a hall erected by Ajatasattu outside the Sattaparnaguha Cave
Detailed accounts of the council can be found in the Khandhaka sections of the canonical Vinayas.
According to this record the incident which prompted the Elder Mahakassapa to call this meeting was his hearing a disparaging remark about the strict rule of life for monks. The monk Subhadda, who had ordained late in life, upon hearing that the Buddha had expired, voiced his resentment at having to abide by all the rules for monks laid down by the Buddha. Many monks lamented the passing of the Buddha and were deeply grieved but Subhadda spoke up to show happiness and relief that Buddha was gone.




Second   Buddhist Council
http://www.thisismyanmar.com/nibbana/images/ymba55.jpg

The group who stayed called themselves the Elders (Thera in Pali). They felt they were in keeping with the original spirit of the Buddha's teachings. The other group, the Great Community (Mahasanghika in Sanskrit), interpreted Buddha's teachings more liberally, but in a way that they felt was more true to his intentions. These two groups would eventually evolve into Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism.

(4th century BCE)
  • Held about 100 years after the Buddha’s demise
  • Held at Vaisali under the presidentship of Sabakami, convened by King Kalasoka
  • Objective was to settle a debate on certain practices of Buddhist monks, esp. in western India
Although it is unclear exactly what happened at this council, we do know that it resulted in a split in the Buddhist community. A large group of monks were either expelled or left by choice because they did not agree with the other group's interpretations of the Buddha's teachings.

Within 200 years of the Buddha's death, there were 18 schools of Buddhism in India. This is perhaps not surprising, given that the Buddha taught in a slightly different way for each situation, was averse to setting down doctrine and never wrote anything himself. Moreover, Buddhism had now spread to places with different languages and customs, and therefore different perspectives on the dharma.


Third   Buddhist Council


The reason for convening the Third Buddhist Council is reported to have been to rid the Sangha of corruption and bogus monks who held heretical views.
 https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjpyyZorplJfJtU2YiCF2Gc3sHvII0pqlCmlWZZcTD5DvxXEmAQMyLVw3cujHS7KdwEC0xDGqgKYgeNx32ovvDxbchI25F1fsVqJjq-zw-WtsAKHIP1lB8xgkQtWscM4JW6Agwql2oAzQ/s400/sangha1.jpg

Disputes on points of doctrine lead to further schisms, spawning the Sarvastivadin and Vibhajjavadin sects. The Abhidhamma Pitaka is recited at the Council, along with additional sections of the Khuddaka Nikaya. The modern Pali Tipitaka is now essentially complete, although some scholars have suggested that at least two parts of the extant Canon — the Parivara in the Vinaya, and the Apadana in the Sutta — may date from a later period.
(250 BCE)
  • Held at Pataliputra under the patronage of Asoka
  • Chief monk was Mogaliputta Tissa
  • Sent Buddhist missionaries to other countries
  • Objective was to purify the Buddhist movement from opportunistic factions
  • Origin of Theravada school



Fourth   Buddhist Council

http://c.photoshelter.com/img-get/I0000rBzWaYk9p1U/s

Fourth Buddhist Council is the name of two separate Buddhist council meetings. The first one was held in the 1st century BC, in Sri Lanka. In this fourth Buddhist council the Theravadin Pali Canon was for the first time committed to writing, on palm leaves. The second one was held by the Sarvastivada school, in Kashmir around the 1st century AD.
(1st century BCE or CE)
  • Possibly held under Theravada school in Tambapanni (Sri Lanka) in the 1st century BCE
  • Committed the Pali Canon to writing
  • Another possibly held under Saravastivada tradition, convened by Kanishka around 100 CE in Kashmir under the leadership of monk Vasumitra
  • Kanishka’s council translated Abhidharna texts from Prakrit to Sanskrit



 
Fifth   Buddhist Council


·         The Fifth Buddhist council  took place in Mandalay, Burma (Myanmar) in 1871 AD in the reign of King Mindon.
·          The chief objective of this meeting was to recite all the teachings of the Buddha according to the Theravada Pali Canon and examine them in minute detail to see if any of them had been altered, distorted or dropped. .
·         It was presided over by three Elders, the Venerable Mahathera Jagarabhivamsa, the Venerable Narindabhidhaja, and the Venerable Mahathera Sumangalasami in the company of 2,400 monks.
·         Their joint Dhamma recitation lasted five months.


Sixth   Buddhist Council

·         The Sixth Buddhist Council was a general council of Theravada Buddhism, held in a specially built cave and pagoda complex at Kaba Aye Pagoda in Yangon, Burma.
·          The council was attended by 2,500 monastics from eight Theravada Buddhist countries.
·         The Council lasted from Vesak 1954 to Vesak 1956, its completion coinciding with the traditional 2,500th anniversary the Buddha's Parinibbāna. In the tradition of past Buddhist councils, a major purpose of the Sixth Council was to preserve the Buddha's teachings and practices as understood in the Theravada tradition.
·         Over the two-year period, monks (sangīti-kāraka) from different countries recited from their existing redaction of the Pali Canon and the associated post-canonical literature.
·          As a result, the Council synthesized a new redaction of the Pali texts ultimately transcribed into several native scripts.


 
 
http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/images/tipitaka_chart.gif