Saturday, May 29, 2010

Alkaloids

Alkaloids are naturally occurring chemical compounds containing basic nitrogen atoms.

The name derives from the word alkaline and is used to describe any nitrogen-containing base and organic compounds with one or more of the following features: a heterocyclic compound containing nitrogen, with an alkaline pH and a marked action on animal physiology.

However, there are exceptions to each of these criteria. Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals and are part of the group of natural products (also called secondary metabolites).

Many alkaloids can be purified from crude extracts by acid-base extraction.

Many alkaloids are toxic to other organisms.

They often have pharmacological effects and are used as medications, as recreational drugs, or in entheogenic rituals.

Examples are the local anesthetic and stimulant cocaine, the stimulant caffeine, nicotine, the analgesic morphine, or the antimalarial drug quinine.

Most alkaloids have a bitter taste.



Related Posts with Thumbnails

Important Laws in Chemistry




Boyle's Law

http://z.about.com/d/chemistry/1/0/p/o/Boyles_Law_animated.gif

 It states that when any gas is expanded or compressed at constant temperature, its volume (V) and pressure (P) are inversely proportional to each other.
P ∞ 1/V (or) PV = constant

Charle's Law

http://wpcontent.answers.com/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Charles_and_Gay-Lussac%27s_Law_animated.gif/220px-Charles_and_Gay-Lussac%27s_Law_animated.gif
It states that when any gas is expanded or compressed at constant pressure, its volume (V) is directly proportional to its absolute temperature T.

V ∞ T (or) V/T = contant (or) V1/T1 = V2/T2

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure
It states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of different gases in a given space is equal of sum to partial pressure of each constituent gas where partial pressure of a gas is the pressure exerted by it, if it were to occupy the same space alone.
P = P1 + P2 + P3 +...

Law of Indestructibility
It states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed by any chemical change.

Law of Multiple Proportion
It states that when two elements combine to form more than one compound, the mass of one which combines with the fixed mass of the other bears a simple ratio to each other.

Law of Reciprocal Proportion (or Law of Equivalent Proportions)
It states that when two different elements combine with the same weight of third element the ratio in which they do so will be the same or some multiple of the ratio in which they combine with each other, e.g., The elements C and H combine with the third element O to form CO2 and H20. Also they combine directly to form CH4 :
In CO2 ⇒ C : = 12 : 32 = 3 : 8
In H2O ⇒ H : O = 2 : 16 = 1 : 8
i.e., from this the ratio C : H = 3 : 1, Now in,
CH4 ⇒ C : H = 12 : 4 = 3 :1

Law of Constant Composition
It states that a chemical compound always consists of same elements combined together in the same proportion by mass.

Gay Lussac's Law of Combining Volumes
It states that gases react together in volumes which bear simple and whole number ratios to one another as well as to the volumes to the gaseous products whereas the volumes being measured under same conditions of temperature and pressure.

Law of Mass Action
It states that the rate of chemical reaction is proportional to the molecular concentration of each of reacting constituents.

Faraday's Law of Electrolysis

  1. The products of electrolysis appear only at the electrodes, having weight proportional to the quantity of electricity passed.

  2. The amounts of ions liberated at the various electrodes are proportional to their chemical equivalents when current passes through the different electrolytes.

Ohm's Law
It states that the magnitude of current flowing between two ends of a conductor is proportional to the potential difference between them.

Avogadro's Law
It states that under similar conditions of temperature and pressure equal volume of all gases contain equal number of molecules.

Raoult's Law
It states that the vapour pressure of a solution containing non - volatile solution is directly proportional to the mole fraction of the solvent.
PA = P°A . XA, PB = P°B . XB, ΔHmix = +ive, ΔV = +ive
The solutions which obey Raoult's law are called Ideal Solutions

  1. When solvent - solvent and solute - solute interactions are stronger than solvent - solute interaction positive deviations take place.


    PA > P°A . XA, PB < P°B . XB, ΔHmix = +ive, ΔV = +ive

  2. When solvent - solvent and solute - solute interactions are weaker than solvent - solute interaction negative deviation takes place.


    PA < P°A . XA, PB < P°B . XB, ΔHmax = -ive, ΔV = -ive

Thursday, May 27, 2010

Herbarium


What is a herbarium?
A herbarium is a collection of pressed plant specimens housed according to taxonomic groups. Each specimen is identified to species and annotated with information about where and when it was obtained and who collected it. These specimens consist of both local plants as well as a wide range of species from around the world.
 
What is a herbarium used for?
Herbaria contain specimens collected throughout the history of botanical exploration in an area. The herbarium documents not only current patterns of plant diversity but also how those patterns have changed throughout historical times. This kind of information is essential for understanding what our landscapes looked like before intensive human settlement and how our activities have altered plant communities, which is useful for focusing biodiversity conservation efforts. Herbarium specimens are also used as sources of DNA for molecular genetics, biotechnology and phylogenetics, etc.
 
Who uses a herbarium?
The three main purposes of a herbarium are research, teaching and public education. The collection is used by scientists and environmental consultants engaged in studies involving environmental impact, plant ecology, evolution, systematics, paleobotany and biodiversity studies. Many herbaria are also used by students in university courses or graduate research projects.    

 



Status in INDIA

India is one of the 12-megadiversity nations of the world. The rich and varied biodiversity of India is India’s greatest strength and is the bedrock for bioindustrial development. The rich biodiversity of India is also matched with an equally rich cultural diversity and indigenous knowledge systems particularly in food and health care traditions such as Ayurveda and Sidha. There are about 54 herbaria in India (http://scisun.nybg.org:8890/searchdb/owa/wwwih/search_list) that hold a huge number of herbarium specimen which are a very valuable source of information of biodiversity of the country. However, there exists no comprehensive database, particularly quantitative information such as authentic nomenclature, distribution, availability of infraspecific variability, uses, etc. of plant specimens stored in the various herbaria of India.
 
 
 
Map of India showing the various herbaria in the country


Additional Reading
Where is located the Blatter Herbarium in India?
Mumbai St.Xaviers College

Bookmark and Share

BIO DOSE (Some Basic terms)

Alga - Any of various chiefly aquatic, eukaryotic, photosynthetic organisms, ranging in size from single-celled forms to the giant kelp. Algae were once considered to be plants but are now classified separately because they lack true roots, stems, leaves, and embryos
Allele - One member of a pair or series of genes that occupy a specific position on a specific chromosome. (Simplification: A blond hair gene and a black hair gene are both found in the same spot on the genome. Some people have one, some the other, but only one can be there. Thus the two are alleles)
Amino Acid - Any of a large number of compounds that are found in living cells, contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, and join together to form proteins. (Building blocks of proteins)
Apoptosis - Disintegration of cells into membrane-bound particles that are then eliminated by phagocytosis or by shedding. (Cell Death)
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) - A multifunctional nucleotide primarily known in biochemistry as the "molecular currency" of intracellular energy transfer. In this role ATP transports chemical energy within cells. (The main type of energy used in cells. Think gasoline in cars)
Cambrian explosion - The geologically sudden appearance of complex multi-cellular macroscopic organisms between roughly 542 and 530 million years ago. This period marks a sharp transition in the fossil record with the appearance of the earliest members of many phyla of metazoans (multicellular animals).
Cyanobacterium - A photosynthetic bacterium of the class Coccogoneae or Hormogoneae, generally blue-green in color and in some species capable of nitrogen fixation. Cyanobacteria were once thought to be algae. Also called blue-green alga. (Keyword: photosynthetic. These bacteria get energy from light)
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) - A nucleic acid that carries the genetic information in the cell and is capable of self-replication and synthesis of RNA. DNA consists of two long chains of nucleotides twisted into a double helix and joined by hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases adenine and thymine or cytosine and guanine. The sequence of nucleotides determines individual hereditary characteristics.
Endorphin - Any of a group of peptide hormones that bind to opiate receptors and are found mainly in the brain. Endorphins reduce the sensation of pain and affect emotions.
Eukaryote - An organism whose cells contain a nucleus surrounded by a membrane. All organisms except for bacteria, cyanobacteria, and the bacteria-like organisms known as archaea are eukaryotes. (Keyword: Nucleus)
Gene - A segment of DNA, occupying a specific place on a chromosome, that is the basic unit of heredity. Genes act by directing the synthesis of proteins, which are the main components of cells and are the catalysts of all cellular processes. Physical traits, such as the shape of a plant leaf, the coloration of an animal's coat, and the texture of a person's hair, are all determined by genes.
Genome - 1. The total genetic content contained in a haploid set of chromosomes in eukaryotes, in a single chromosome in bacteria, or in the DNA or RNA of viruses. 2. An organism's genetic material.
Histone - Any of several small, basic proteins most commonly found in association with the DNA in the chromatin of eukaryotes. (DNA "wraps" around these in order to coil in a cell and save room)
Interferon - Any of a group of glycoproteins that are produced by different cell types in response to various stimuli, such as exposure to a virus, bacterium, parasite, or other antigen, and that prevent viral replication in newly infected cells and, in some cases, modulate specific cellular functions.
junk DNA - Collective label for the portions of the DNA sequence of a chromosome or a genome for which no function has yet been identified. About 98.5% of the human genome has been designated as "junk", including most sequences within introns and most intergenic DNA.
Mitochondria - A spherical or elongated organelle in the cytoplasm of nearly all eukaryotic cells, containing genetic material and many enzymes important for cell metabolism, including those responsible for the conversion of food to usable energy. (Power House of cells)
Mutation - 1.A change of the DNA sequence within a gene or chromosome of an organism resulting in the creation of a new character or trait not found in the parental type. 2. The process by which such a change occurs in a chromosome, either through an alteration in the nucleotide sequence of the DNA coding for a gene or through a change in the physical arrangement of a chromosome.
Obligate - 1. Able to exist or survive only in a particular environment or by assuming a particular role: an obligate parasite; an obligate anaerobe. 2. Absolutely indispensable; essential. (It has to be or use something)
Phenotype - 1a. The observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, as determined by both genetic makeup and environmental influences. b. The expression of a specific trait, such as stature or blood type, based on genetic and environmental influences. 2. An individual or group of organisms exhibiting a particular phenotype. (The physical expression of genes; eye color for example)
Prion - A microscopic protein particle similar to a virus but lacking nucleic acid, thought to be the infectious agent responsible for scrapie and certain other degenerative diseases of the nervous system. (This mutant protein causes mad cow)
Prokaryote - Any of a wide variety of one-celled organisms that lack a distinct cell nucleus or other structures bound by a membrane and that have DNA that is not organized into chromosomes. Prokaryotes reproduce asexually, are the most primitive and ancient known forms of life, and include the bacteria and blue-green algae. (No Nucleus)
Retrovirus - Any of a group of viruses, many of which produce tumors, that contain RNA and reverse transcriptase, including the virus that causes AIDS. (These viruses can turn RNA into DNA, which is virtually unheard of anywhere else. Normal Transcriptase makes RNA from a DNA template, reverse transcriptase works in, well, reverse)
RNA (ribonucleic acid) - The nucleic acid that determines protein synthesis in all living cells and the genetic makeup of many viruses. RNA consists of a single strand of nucleotides in a variety of lengths and shapes and is mainly produced in the cell nucleus. (Different from DNA because it uses the base Uracil instead of Thymine and a slightly different sugar backbone)
Telomere - Either of the sections of DNA occurring at the ends of a chromosome.
Virus - Submicroscopic parasitic particle that infects cells in biological organisms. (Usually a protein shell containing RNA or DNA. Replicates by entering a host cell and hyjacking its replication machinery to spawn copies. Antibiotics have no effect on them)
Biocenosis
a group of organisms in a self-sufficient community naturally occupying a small area with a uniform environment throughout.

Bookmark and Share

Bio Dose

Angiosperms are a group of flowering plants that represent a major community in the plant kingdom. Angiosperms occur in all typical habits and constitute a very useful group of plants for animals and human beings. They include about 2,50,000 species distributed all over the world. They are the most highly evolved group of plants and appeared on Earth about 130 million years ago.

Stem Modifications

     Generally, the stems are aerial and grow above the soil surface. Sometimes, the stem becomes variously modified to perform special functions like perennation, vegetative propagation and food storage. The modified stems may be grouped under three heads viz, underground, subaerial and aerial.

Stem Modifications

summary of stem modifications in plants
Bookmark and Share

 

Root System

     Root is the descending portion of the axis of the plant. It is not normally green in colour. It is characterised by the absence of nodes and internodes.

Modifications of Roots

     Roots sometimes have special functions to perform and in such cases their form and structure differ from those of normal roots.

 Root Modifications

illustration of root modification

Some Indian Medicinal Plants

Bookmark and Share
Plant Common name / Maturity period Botanical Name or Family



Parts Used
Medicinal Use
Emblica officinalis Amla ( T )After 4th year Emblica officinalis
Fam - euphorbiaceac




Fruit
Vitamin – C, Cough , Diabetes, cold, Laxativ, hyper acidity.
Ashok Ashok ( T )10 years onward Saraca Asoca
Fam : Caesalpinanceac




Bark Flower
Menstrual Pain, uterine, disorder, Deiabetes.
Aswagandha Aswagandha ( H ), One year Withania Somnifera
Fam: Solanaccac




Root, Leafs
Restorative Tonic, stress, nerves disorder, aphrodiasiac.
Aegle 
marmelous Bael / Bilva (T)After 4-5 year Aegle marmelous
Fam: Rutaccac




Fruit, Bark
Diarrrhoea, Dysentry, Constipation.
Phyllanthous amarus Bhumi Amla ( H), with in one year Phyllanthous amarus
Fam : euphorbiaccac




Whole Plant
Aenimic, jaundice, Dropsy.
Bacopa, 
Monieri Brahmi ( H ) Indian penny worth/one year Bacopa,Monnieri
Fam: Scrophulariaccac




Whole plant
Nervous, Memory enhancer,mental disorder.
Chiraita Chiraita ( high altituted) with in one year ( H ) Swertia Chiraita
Fam : Gentianaccac




Whole Plant
Skin Desease, Burning, censation, fever.
Gudmar Gudmar / madhunasini, after Four year ( C ) Gymnema Sylvestre
Fam: Asclepiadaccac




Leaves
Diabetes, hydrocil, Asthama.
Guggul Guggul ( T)after 8 years Commiphora Wightii
Fam: burseraccac




Gum rasine
Rheuma tised, arthritis, paralysis, laxative.
Tinospora CordifoliaFam Guluchi / Giloe ( C )With in one year Tinospora CordifoliaFam



Stem
Gout, Pile, general debility, fever, Jaundice.
Gloriosa superba Calihari / panchanguliaGlori Lily Five years Gloriosa superba
Fam: Liliaccac




Seed, tuber
Skin Desease, Labour pain, Abortion, General debility.
Kalmegh Kalmegh/ Bhui neem ( H ) with in one year Andrographis PaniculataFam : scanthaccac



Whole Plant
Fever, weekness, release of gas.
Peeper 
longum Long peeper / Pippali ( C ) after two to three years Peeper longum
Fam : Piperaccac




Fruit, Root
Appetizer, enlarged spleen , Bronchities, Cold, antidote.
Makoi Makoi ( H )Kakamachi/ With in one year Solanum nigrum
Fam: Solanaccac




Fruit/whole plant
Dropsy, General debility,Diuretic, anti dysenteric.
Coleus 
barbatus Pashan Bheda / Pathar Chur ( H )One year Coleus barbatus
Fam : Lamiaccac




Root
Kidny stone, Calculus.
Santalum 
Album Sandal Wood ( T )Thirty years onward Santalum Album
Fam: santalinaccac




Heart wood , oil
Skin disorder, Burning, sensation, Jaundice, Cough.
Sarpa 
Gandha Sarpa Gandha ( H )After 2 year Ranwolfia Serpentina
Fam: apocynaccac




Root
Hyper tension, insomnia.
Asparagus Racemosus Satavari ( C )After 2-3 year Asparagus Racemosus
Family: liliaccac




Tuber, root
Enhance lactation, general weekness, fatigue, cough.
Senna Senna ( S )With in 1 year Casia augustifolia
Fam: Liliaceae




Dry Tubers
Rheumatism, general debility tonic, aphrodisiac.
Ocimum sanclum Tulsi (perennial) Each 3 months Ocimum sanclum
Fam: Lamiaccac




Leaves/Seed
Cough, Cold, bronchitis,expectorand.
Vai Vidanka Vai Vidanka ( C ), 2nd year onward Embelia Ribes
Fam: Myrsinaccac




Root, Fruit, Leaves
Skin disease, Snake Bite, Helminthiasis.
Mentha 
pipertia Pippermint ( h) Perennial Mentha pipertia
Fam:Lamiaccac




Leaves, Flower, Oil
Digestive, Pain killer.
Lawsennia iermis Henna/Mehdi ( S ) 1/25 years Lawsennia iermis
Fam: lytharaceae




Leaf,Flower, Seed
Burning, Steam, Anti Imflamatary.
Aloe Verra Gritkumari ( H) 2nd-5th yr Aloe Verra
Fam: Liliaceae




Leaves
Laxative, Wound healing, Skin burns & care,Ulcer.
Vincea 
rosea Sada Bahar ( H ) Periwinkle/Nyantara Vincea rosea/ catharanthusRoseus
Fam :apocyanace




Whole Plant
Leaukamia, Hypotensiv, Antispasmodic , Atidot.
Eclipta 
alba Vringraj ( H ) Eclipta alba
Fam: Compositae




Seed/whole
Anti-inflamatory, Digestive, hairtonic.
Plumbago Zeylanica Swet chitrak
Perennial ( h )
Plumbago Zeylanica
Fam: Plumbaginaceae




Root, Rootbar
Appetiser, Antibacterial, Aticacer.
Plumbago 
Indica Rakta Chitrak ( H ) Plumbago Indica
Fam : plumbaginaceae




Root, Root bar
Indyspeipsia, colic, imflammation, cough.
Strychinos nuxvomica Kochila ( T )15 yrs Strychinos nuxvomica
Fam: loganiaceae




Seed
Nervous, Paralysis, healing wound.
Terminalia 
Chebula Harida ( T ) Terminalia Chebula
Fam: Combretaceae




Seed
Trifala, wound ulcer, leprosy, inflammation, Cough.
Terminalia Bellerica Bahada (T) TerminaliaBellerica
Fam:comretaceae




Seed, Bark
Cough, Insomnia, Dropsy, Vomiting, Ulcer, Trifala.
Tribulus Terrestris Gokhur ( H ) CrawlingPuncture Vine/1 yr Tribulus Terrestris
Fam: Lygophyllaceae




Whole Plant
Sweet cooling, Aphrodisiac, appetizer, Digestive, Urinary.
Azardirchata – indica Neem ( T ) Azardirchata – indica
Fam : Mahaceae




Rhizome
Sdedative, analgesic, epilepsy, hypertensive.
Hemibi smus Indicus Anantamool/sariva ( S )Indian Sarap sarilla Hemibi smus Indicus
Fam: Asclepiadaceae




Root/ Leaf
Appetiser, Carminative, aphrodisiac, Astringent.
Acorus 
Calamus Bach ( H )
Sweet Flag/1 yr
Acorus Calamus
Fam : araceae




Rhizome
Sdedative, analgesic, tpilepsy, hypertensive.
Adhatoda
 vesica Vasa ( S ) Adhatoda vesica
Fam : Sacanthaceae




Whole Plant
Antispasmodic, respiratory, Stimulant.
Mesua Ferrea Nageswar ( T ) Nag Champa Mesua Ferrea
Fam : Guttiferae




Bark, Leaf, Flower
Asthma, Skin, Burning, Vomiting, Dysentry, Piles.
Vetiveria Ziziinoides Benachar ( S ) Khus/khus Vetiveria Ziziinoides
Fam : Toaceae / Graminae




Root
Hyperdisia, Burning, ulcer, Skin, Vomiting.
Centella asiatica Mandukparni ( H )
Indianpennywort
Centella asiatica
Fam : Umdelliferae




Whole plant - Antiinflamatory, Jundice, Diuretic, Diarrhoea.
Mucuna 
Truriens Kaincha/CreeperBaidanka Mucuna Truriens
Fam : Fabaceae




Root, Hair, Seed, Leaf - Nervous, Disorder, Constipation, Nephroaphy, Strangury, Dropsy.
Cinnamomum Zeylanicum Dalchini
Perenial Shrub
Cinnamomum Zeylanicum
Fam : Lauraceae




Bark, Oil - Bronchitis, Asthma, Cardiac, Disorder, Fever.
Holarrhena antidysenterica Kurai ( S ) Holorheena antidysentrica
Fam:apocyaceaceae




Bark, Seed - Scabies, Antipyretic, Amoibic dysentery.
Solanum Xanthocarpum Kantakari / AkrantiPerennial ( H ) Solanum Xanthocarpum
Fam : Solanaceae




Whole Plant, Fruit, Seed - Diuretic, Antiinflamatory, Appetiser, Stomachic.